Fox News The truth about people who brag they don't need much sleep

 (aydinynr)

For most of us, skimping on sleep means feeling cranky and foggyheaded the next day, but we all __have that one friend who claims she can survive—even thrive!—on just a few hours a night.

Now, a new study suggests that people like that may indeed function better on less sleep—but they also may be more tired than they realize. In fact, they may be falling asleep throughout the day without even knowing it.

The research, conducted by University of Utah psychologists, radiologists, and neurologists, looked at MRI scans of about 900 people. The participants were split into two groups: those who reported getting a normal amount of sleep in the last month, and those who got six hours or less a night. People in the short-sleep group were then divided further, based on whether they reported daytime dysfunction—such as feeling too drowsy to perform common tasks—or said they generally felt fine.

The researchers saw something interesting in the brain scans of short sleepers that they didn’t see in the “normal” group: During their time in the MRI, their brain waves exhibited patterns more typically of sleep than of wakefulness.

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In other words, the scans suggest that some short sleepers may have briefly drifted off—even though they were instructed to stay awake, said co-author Jeff Anderson, MD, PhD, an associate professor of radiology and imaging sciences, in a press release. These patterns were seen in both sub-groups of short sleepers, regardless of whether they reported suffering daytime dysfunction.

“People are notoriously poor at knowing whether they’ve fallen asleep for a minute or two,” Dr. Anderson pointed out.

The researchers think that people who regularly get by on less sleep may __have brains with wake-up systems that are perpetually in overdrive, said co-author Christopher Jones, MD, PhD, a clinical professor of neurology. “This leaves open the possibility that, in a boring fMRI scanner they have nothing to do to keep them awake and thus fall asleep,” he said.

Of course, this could lead to situations much more dangerous than conking out during a scientific study. “Other boring situations, like driving an automobile at night without adequate visual or auditory stimulation, may also put short sleepers at risk of drowsiness or even falling asleep behind the wheel,” said co-author and psychology graduate student Brian Curtis.

There was some good news for short sleepers, though. Those who said they felt fine on shorter sleep schedules also had brain scans that showed enhanced connectivity between parts of the brain associated with external sensory information and memory.

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“That’s tantalizing because it suggests that maybe one of the things the short sleepers are doing in the scanner is performing memory consolidation more efficiently than non-short sleepers,” Dr. Anderson said. (Memory consolidation, simply put, is a process in the brain that transforms short-term memories into long-term ones.) If these people are really able to consolidate their memories and brain tasks throughout the day, he explained, perhaps they actually don’t need as much sleep at night. “Maybe some brains are able to do what sleep does in little tiny epochs during the day.”

The study was published last week in the journal Brain and Behavior. More research is needed, the authors say, to determine if either of their hypotheses about the brain activity of short sleepers—or both—hold true.

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The team’s next study will directly examine cognitive performance, including driving simulator testing, of people who say they need less than six hours of sleep a night. It will also include feedback from study participants’ family members and partners.

“We are particularly interested in understanding the discrepancy between people’s perception of their functioning and how they’re actually functioning,” said co-author and associate professor of psychology Paula Williams, PhD. “Not everyone is equally accurate.” 

This article originally appeared on Health.com

Health officials urge Americans to get their flu shots

Marasmus: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

Malnutrition is a condition in which a lack of nutrients in the body causes health problems. This is most often the result of a very poor diet that doesn't contain all the vitamins and nutrients needed for the body to function properly. Marasmus is one form of malnutrition.

When a person doesn't get the right nutrients, their bodies __have difficulty going through normal motions like growing or fighting disease. These difficulties can then lead to more serious health problems.

Contents of this article:

1. What is marasmus?
2. Other forms of severe malnutrition
3. Treatment of marasmus
4. Prevention of marasmus

What is marasmus?

Marasmus is a severe form of protein-energy malnutrition caused by a shortage of protein and calories in the body. Without these vital nutrients, the body becomes dangerously low in energy and important functions begin to stop.

Around 20 million children under the age of 5 __have severe forms of malnutrition.

Both adults and children can be affected by marasmus, but young children in developing countries are affected most often.

It is estimated that 20 million children under the age of five have severe forms of malnutrition like marasmus at some point in their lives, according to UNICEF. About 500,000 to 2 million children die as a result of it.

Marasmus is not always a direct result of a lack of nutrients. It can also be caused by the wrong nutrients, or an inability to absorb or process nutrients properly because of infection.

One study suggests that there are four main causes that lead to marasmus:

1. Improper feeding
2. Infection, such as syphilis or tuberculosis
3. Congenital weakness of disease, such as congenital heart disease
4. Very poor sanitary and hygienic conditions that spread disease

Marasmus is also referred to as wasting. It is most often identified by the affected person's physical appearance, which becomes skeletally thin. The loss of body fat and muscle tissue leads to a withered appearance, often described as looking like "skin and bones."

Other symptoms of marasmus include:

• Thin face
• Ribs and shoulders clearly visible through the skin
• Very loose skin that sometimes hangs in folds in the upper arms, thighs, and buttocks
• Persistent dizziness
• Sunken eyes
• Diarrhea
• Active, alert, or irritable behavior
• Frequent dehydration
• Frequent infections that don't show external signs like fever or lesions

Other forms of severe malnutrition

Marasmus is not the only form of severe malnutrition.

Kwashiorkor

Kwashiorkor is another very severe form of protein-energy malnutrition. Very serious cases of marasmus can lead to kwashiorkor. The main difference between the two is that kwashiorkor causes the affected person's body to hold large amounts of fluid in places like the lower legs, feet, arms, hands, and face.

Unlike marasmus, someone affected by kwashiorkor may look like they are of a healthy body weight, or even plump. They may not lose weight, but this is because the fluid buildup is making up for the loss in body fat and muscle tissue.

Dermatosis is one of the symptoms of kwashiorkor.

Other symptoms of kwashiorkor include:

• Loss of appetite
• Lack of energy
• Irritability
• Changes in hair color to yellow or orange
• Dermatosis - a condition in which patches of skin turn abnormally light or dark, the skin sheds, skin ulcers develop, and lesions begin to leak or bleed

It's critical that kwashiorkor is diagnosed and treated immediately. It is even more life-threatening than marasmus and can lead to death quickly.

Marasmic-kwashiorkor

Marasmic-kwashiorkor is the third form of protein-energy malnutrition. Those affected by this condition experience a combination of marasmus and kwashiorkor. As such, they will show symptoms of both conditions as well.

For example, someone with marasmic-kwashiorkor may:

• Be extremely thin and show signs of wasting
• have excessive fluid buildup in other parts of their body
• Be severely dehydrated

Like with kwashiorkor, it is extremely important that someone showing marasmic-kwashiorkor receives immediate medical treatment. It is more difficult to recover as time goes on, and they face a high risk of death as the condition worsens.

Treatment of marasmus

Marasmus is life-threatening medical emergency, so it's very important to treat it at the onset of symptoms. Other forms of malnutrition may look different but are just as dangerous if left untreated.

Although severe malnutrition is uncommon among children in developed countries, it's important to look out for symptoms that may signal malnourishment. Rapid weight loss, infections, and sudden changes in behavior or appetite could be signs of a bigger problem.

It's a good idea to visit a doctor right away if someone notices any of these symptoms. The longer marasmus goes untreated, the less chance there is of a full recovery.

Research suggests that successfully treating marasmus depends on four factors:

1. The patient's age - the younger the patient, the greater chance of death
2. How much body weight the patient has lost
3. The nutritional treatment given
4. The ability of the patient to resist infection

In order to treat marasmus, a treatment plan must be set up by medical professionals if possible.

A rich, carbohydrate-filled diet is a good form of treatment, but full recovery can still take months.

There is great difficulty in treating marasmus because the patient needs significantly more calories than a normally nourished person their age. Because their body has lost its fat supply and most of the tissue has been starved, their body no longer has the ability to digest or tolerate a normal amount of food on their own, let alone enough to bring them back to health.

As a result, feeding is usually done in small amounts and through tubes to the veins and stomach. These tubes allow for food and fluid to be delivered quickly and directly to the body.

A diet treatment rich in nutrients, carbohydrates, and calories is very important. It can still take months for a full recovery, even with the right treatment plan.

The complications linked with marasmus such as infections and dehydration must also be treated and prevented to help the patient regain their health.

Prevention of marasmus

The best way to prevent marasmus is to have a well-balanced diet. Foods rich in protein like skimmed milk, fish, eggs, and nuts are important for energy and growth. Vegetables and fruits are important for providing other nutrients and minerals and for preventing malnutrition in general.

Ensuring that complications like dehydration and diarrhea don't reoccur for those who have been malnourished before or affected by marasmus are very important.

Good sanitation and hygiene also play a big role in spreading disease for people in developing countries. Poor sanitation and hygiene can lead to infections that may take a toll on someone who is already close to malnutrition.

Cooking foods at high heat to destroy bacteria can help, as can freezing food and reheating it before eating. Boiling water before drinking, cooking, or bathing in areas where clean water is difficult to access is important to prevent spreading waterborne diseases.

New mothers can also help prevent malnourishment in their newborns by breastfeeding as much as possible.

Written by Foram Mehta

Depression After Abortion: Understanding and Coping

There is some controversy about depression after abortion, and not just in the medical profession. It is not clear that abortion depression is a specific condition, although it is clear that women do __have emotional responses to abortion.

Depression itself is a well-recognized medical condition. But can depression be caused by abortion?

There is only limited research into the psychological effects of abortion. A lot of the research has been complicated by technical problems such as not being able to control for other factors that could be behind a case of depression, rather than the abortion itself.

The experience of abortion is different for each woman and varies widely. Feelings after an abortion can be mixed. Women may __have both positive and negative feelings.

In general, abortion may be followed by feelings of sadness, grief, loss or regret. If these feelings do occur and are severe enough, or last for long enough, they may amount to depression.

Contents of this article:

1. First feelings about abortion
2. What is depression?
3. Treatment of depression

First feelings about abortion

Abortion can be a stressful life event for some women who choose to terminate their pregnancy.

The pregnancy in the first place may be a source of stress itself. It may have been an unwanted pregnancy or linked with other problems.

Following an abortion, women can have unexpected reactions and emotions. The topic can be difficult to talk about for cultural and religious reasons. Some women may feel greater guilt and emotional distress because of religious influences that create stigma around abortion.

Abortion may be followed by feelings of sadness, grief, loss, or regret.

Many of the psychological and emotional responses to abortion are normal. Most should not be persistent or severe enough to badly affect a woman's daily life, and should go away.

The range of typical feelings experienced with abortion might include:

• Grief, a sense of loss
• Guilt
• Remorse or regret
• Stress, reduced ability to cope
• Loss of self-esteem
• Relief, reduced anxiety

Not all women have negative emotional responses to abortion. Most who do will not have any lasting mental health problems.

Many women have positive responses to abortion, including feelings of relief. Some women feel no regret, instead having a sense of confidence about having made "the right choice."

What is depression?

Depression is a psychological or mental health condition. It is a mood disorder.

People with depression may have these signs and symptoms:

• Feeling low or sad
• Reduced thinking abilities
• Poor concentration, and difficulty making decisions
• Guilt
• Feeling irritable
• Lack of energy, tiredness
• Loss of interest in sex
• Loss of interest in activities that were previously enjoyed
• Disturbed sleep patterns

Depression comes with different levels of severity. People with mild depression are able to carry on with their usual daily activities.

Severe depression affects life so badly that it may prove difficult to work. Severe depression can also lead to more serious mental health symptoms such as psychosis.

Suicidal feelings or self-harm are serious symptoms that need urgent help.

Depression does not cause physical changes, although people who are depressed may talk more slowly.

The effects of depression on levels of interest can also have a secondary effect. Depression that causes loss of interest in food may lead to weight loss.

Depression, or grief about abortion?

Grief after the death of a partner, for example, is a natural reaction that should not lead to long-term depression.

Grief has the symptoms of depression but is clearly related to the loss.

Feelings of loss are also natural after the unplanned termination of a pregnancy, such as caused by illness or injury. These symptoms in response to spontaneous abortion should also not be lasting.

Even when a woman has chosen to terminate her pregnancy with an abortion, there can still be natural feelings of loss, sadness, grief, guilt, and regret afterward.

Some women may have been greatly influenced by people around them when making their decision. Feelings that are similar to symptoms of depression should normally improve.

Spontaneous abortion

An aborted pregnancy can be spontaneous. This means an abortion that has not been chosen by the woman but has been caused by illness or injury. Problems with the placenta, for example, can cause loss of pregnancy.

Other terms used for spontaneous abortion are stillbirth and miscarriage. Stillbirth generally refers to loss of later pregnancies, while miscarriage means termination happening in the first 24 weeks.

Depression risk factors

Women who have a mental disorder before having an unwanted pregnancy and then an abortion may experience the event differently than mentally healthy women. They may be more at risk, but the scientific evidence is not strong that there are particular depression risk factors related to abortion itself.

There is a higher risk of depression if the woman has a history of alcohol or drug abuse.

Women who already have a psychiatric disorder may be more likely than others to experience feelings of doubt before having an abortion. They are more likely to rate the experience of an abortion as having been an emotional burden, too.

The American Psychological Association Task Force on Mental Health and Abortion found in 2008 that some women are at a higher risk of depression. This higher risk was the same for women who opted for abortion as for the range of other pregnancy outcomes. The risk factors included:

• Poverty
• History of violence or emotional problems
• History of drug or alcohol use
• Previous unwanted childbirth

More general risk factors behind depression beyond any specific effects that might result from pregnancy and abortion are not well understood. The exact causes of depression are not known.

A higher risk of depression is linked to genetics. People with a first-degree relative who have depression are more likely to have it themselves, too.

Life events can trigger episodes of depression, but these are usually temporary. It is not clear why some people are triggered into lasting, more severe depression. Major life stresses include separation and loss.

Other risk factors are a poorer ability to cope with life's pressures, being female, and having more exposure to things that cause stress daily.

What is post-abortion stress syndrome?

Post-abortion stress syndrome (PASS or PAS) is a controversial name. Neither psychologists nor psychiatrists agree that the term should be used.

The term might have been created by groups who are against abortion. Scientists have also used the phrase, but in relation to poorly designed research.

The features allotted to PASS have been compared to those of PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder).

Talking therapy is a great way to treat depression.

It may be more appropriate to consider that some women might develop a form of PTSD following the trauma of an abortion, but such a level of distress is very rare.

The consensus, including from the American Psychological Association, is that the risk of mental ill health following abortion is no worse than following a decision to continue a pregnancy. Many agree that there is no reliable research to show that PASS exists.

One study following 500 women from birth until the age of 30 years found that mental health after abortion was slightly worse than for other courses of pregnancy. The effect was small, however, and would not amount to a trauma-related syndrome.

Treatment of depression

Depression is a treatable mental health condition. Three broad options are used to treat depression:

• Support
• Talking therapy
• Drugs

A mild case of depression may benefit from the support of a doctor in the form of monitoring. The symptoms may clear up on their own, and later follow-ups with the doctor can confirm this.

Talking therapies are available for all severities of depression. These include talking to a trained psychologist for psychotherapy or cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT helps the person to understand their thoughts and how they respond to them.

Counseling may also be available with non-specialist counselors or through group activities.

Talking to someone about abortion may be helpful. Healthcare providers often offer someone to talk to after an abortion as well as leading up to the decision.

Drug options for depression are numerous. There are dozens of antidepressant drugs that may be tried with the help of a doctor. These are usually used for moderate or severe cases of depression.

Having depression can be a long-term problem. Living with the disorder and recovering from it may be helped by improving diet and taking exercise.

More physical activity can lift mood and has wider health benefits. It may also prove to be a good way to get away from depressing, worrying, or stressful thoughts, and to make new social contacts.

Other options for coping with depression include activities such as yoga and mindful meditation.

Written by Markus MacGill

Sauna: What are the Health Benefits?

Saunas __have been used for hundreds of years and still continue to be popular today. Many people enjoy sitting in a sauna to unwind and relax.

Spending time in a sauna can feel good, and there may be additional health benefits to be had beyond relaxation.

Contents of this article:

1. What is a sauna?
2. Potential health benefits of using a sauna
3. Health risks and precautions
4. Health myths about saunas, hot tubs, and steam rooms

What is a sauna?

Many people enjoy relaxing and unwinding in a sauna.

A sauna is typically a room heated to between 70 to 100°C. Traditional Finnish saunas usually involve dry heat.

The relative humidity is often between 10 and 20 percent, but there are also sauna types where moisture is higher. Turkish-style saunas involve a greater level of humidity, for example.

Sauna use can raise the skin temperature to roughly 40°C. As the skin temperature rises, heavy sweating also occurs. The heart rate soars as the body attempts to keep cool. It is not uncommon to lose about a pint of sweat while spending a short time in a sauna.

Types of saunas

There are several types of saunas based on how the room is heated. These types include the following:

• Wood burning: Wood is used to heat the sauna room and sauna rocks. Wood-burning saunas are usually low in humidity and high in temperature.
• Electrically heated: Similar to wood-burning saunas, electrically-heated saunas __have high temperatures and low humidity. They use an electrical heater, which is attached to the floor to heat the sauna room.
• Infrared room: Infrared saunas are different to wood-burning and electrically-heated saunas. Special lamps use light waves heat a person's body, not the entire room. The sauna room still gets warm, but temperatures are typically lower than other saunas. Usually, infrared saunas are about 60°C.
• Steam room: Steam rooms are not traditional saunas but are still sometimes referred to as a sauna because of similar effects. Instead of using dry heat, a steam room involves high humidity and moist heat.

Potential health benefits of using a sauna

Regardless of how a sauna is heated or the humidity level, the effects on the body are similar. When a person sits in a sauna, their heart rate increases and blood vessels widen. This increases circulation.

The effects on the body from sauna use may have some potential health benefits. Increased circulation may help reduce muscle soreness, improve joint movement, and ease arthritis pain. The heat in a sauna may also promote relaxation, which can improve feelings of well-being.

A potential health benefit from sauna use may be a reduced risk of death from cardiovascular disease. One study conducted in Finland followed 2,315 men ages 42 to 60 over the course of 20 years.

Of these participants, a total of 929 died from cardiac disease, coronary artery disease, or sudden cardiac death. Participants were also categorized by how often they used a sauna, including once a week, two to three times a week, and four to seven times a week.

Steam rooms involve high humidity and moist heat as opposed to the dry heat of traditional Finnish saunas.

After the researchers had adjusted for cardiovascular risk factors, increased sauna use was linked with a reduced risk of fatal cardiovascular-related diseases.

Participants who used the sauna two to three times a week experienced sudden cardiac death 22 percent less than those who only used it once a week.

The results were even greater for men who used a sauna more often. Those who used a sauna four or more times a week experienced sudden cardiac death 63 percent less often than those who only used a sauna once a week.

The idea is that sitting in a sauna may have cardiovascular effects similar to moderate exercise. Heart rate may increase to 150 beats a minute while using a sauna. When heart rate increases, it pumps more blood to the body. Circulation increases in a similar way to the effects of exercise.

Another theory is that sauna use may improve the function of cells in the heart. Cells that line the arteries play a role in the amount of blood that flows to the heart. Improving the function of these cells may also boost heart function.

The effects of lowering stress levels when using a sauna more may also help reduce cardiovascular events. The bottom line is that when it comes to the cardiovascular effects, more research is needed to find out if there is a definite link between sauna use and a decrease in deaths from heart disease.

While studies may be promising, sauna use should not replace an exercise program to keep the heart healthy. There is more evidence to support the benefits of regular exercise.

Health risks and precautions

It is vital to drink plenty of water after using a sauna.

According to the American Heart Association, sauna use in moderation appears to be safe for most people. Switching between the heat of a sauna and cold water in a swimming pool is not advisable, however, as it can raise blood pressure.

Since sauna use may cause a drop in blood pressure, people with low blood pressure should talk with their doctor to make sure sauna use is safe. People who have recently had a heart attack should also talk to their doctor before using a sauna.

One of the biggest risks of spending time in a sauna is dehydration due to fluid loss from sweating. People with certain conditions, such as kidney disease, may be at a higher risk of dehydration. The increased temperatures can also lead to dizziness and nausea in some people.

Steps that should be taken to avoid any negative health effects include the following:

• Avoid drinking alcohol: Alcohol can increase the risks of dehydration since it causes the body to lose more water through urinating more.
• Limit time spent in a sauna: Don't spend more than 20 minutes at a time in a sauna. People who have never used a sauna should consider limiting their time to about 5 to 10 minutes. As they get used to the heat, they can slowly increase the time to about 20 minutes.
• Drink plenty of water: Regardless of the type of sauna a person uses, it's important to replace the fluids lost from sweating. People spending time in a sauna should drink about two to four glasses of water after using a sauna.
• Avoid sauna use if ill: People who are ill should also wait until they recover before using a sauna. Women who are pregnant or those with certain medical conditions, such as low blood pressure, should ask their doctor before sauna use.

Health myths about saunas, hot tubs, and steam rooms

Although there may be some potential health benefits to spending time in a sauna, there are also a few myths. One myth involving sauna use is that sweating can remove toxins from the body.

It's true that sweating occurs during sauna use, but there is no scientific research that proves sweating detoxifies the body. Sweat is not made up of toxins, however. Toxins such as alcohol, mercury, and aluminum are mainly removed by the kidneys, liver, and intestines.

Another myth about the use of sauna is that it leads to weight loss. It is possible to lose about a pound after using a sauna, but weight loss is due to fluid loss, not fat. The weight will be replaced as soon as a person eats or drinks something.

Written by MaryAnn de Pietro

Cancer and Genetics: What's the Connection?

Genes control the way cells work, and in particular how they grow and divide. When something goes wrong with one or more of the genes in a cell, changes occur that can lead to cancer.

Such changes are commonly referred to as faults or mutations. Although cancer is mainly the result of life choices and not related to family gene pools, it can also be caused by these faults or mutations.

As a result, cancer can be inherited from parents and grandparents and passed on to future generations.

Contents of this article:

1. How do genetic changes lead to cancer?
2. What forms of cancer are hereditary?
3. Genetic testing for cancer

How do genetic changes lead to cancer?

A higher risk of some forms of cancer can be inherited from parents and grandparents.

A cell must typically contain six or more faults to become cancerous. Such faults can cause the cell to stop functioning normally, become cancerous, and grow and divide uncontrollably.

This may happen as people get older as a result of random mistakes when a cell is dividing. Changes can also occur due to exposure to substances that can cause cancer called carcinogens. These include cigarette smoke or sunlight.

Though potentially cancerous, these gene changes don't affect all body cells, are not inherited, and cannot be passed on to children.

Cancer is such a common disease that many families __have several members who __have had cancer. Certain types of cancer seem to run in some families, but only a small portion of all cancers are inherited.

How is cancer risk passed on?

Faulty genes that increase the risk of cancer can be passed on from parent to child. Such genes are called inherited cancer genes. They occur when there is a mistake or a fault in the genes contained in an egg or sperm cell.

Genes that increase the risk of cancer are known as cancer susceptibility genes. Their normal job is to correct DNA damage that naturally occurs when cells divide, protecting people against cancer.

Inheriting a faulty copy of one these genes means that it is unable to repair damaged DNA in cells. As a consequence, the cells may become cancerous.

People inherit genes from both parents. If a gene fault occurs in each parent, a child has a 1 in 2 chance of inheriting it. While some children will have the faulty gene and an increased risk of developing cancer, others won't.

What forms of cancer are hereditary?

Cancers caused by inherited faulty genes are much less common than cancers caused by gene changes due to aging or other factors.

Most cancers develop through a combination of chance and the environment rather than inheriting a specific cancer gene. However, about 5 to 10 percent of all cancer cases occur in people who have inherited genetic mutations that raise the risk of cancer.

Mutations and syndromes that can increase the risk of cancer include:

• BRCA1 and BRCA2 genetic mutations - raised risk of breast, ovarian, and prostate cancer
• Cowden syndrome - raised risk of developing breast, uterine, and thyroid cancer
• Familial adenomatous polyposis - raised risk of colorectal cancer, and soft tissue and brain tumors
• Li-Fraumeni syndrome - raised risk of developing many different types of cancer
• Lynch syndrome - raised risk of colorectal cancer, some skin cancers, and brain tumors
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia - raised risk of endocrine cancers
• Von Hippel-Lindau disease - raised risk of kidney and other cancers

Genetic testing for cancer

Tests are currently available for gene faults that increase the risk of breast, bowel, ovarian, womb, and prostate cancer. Tests are also available for rare gene faults that can increase the risk of kidney, skin, and thyroid cancer, and even a type of eye cancer called retinoblastoma.

Tests are available for some rare gene faults that lead to certain types of cancer.

Tests are not presently available for other types of cancer genes. Research is always being conducted, however, with tests being developed for more and more gene faults.

Predictive genetic testing refers to the type of testing done on genes that increase the risk of cancer. They do not usually give precise answers about inherited diseases. The tests will only show if there is a specific gene mutation, not whether cancer is present.

A positive result means there is a raised risk of developing cancer but does not mean that cancer is present or will develop. For example, a particular gene mutation may be found through testing, but it might not be clear if this raises the risk of cancer.

In short, the test can show what might happen, but it cannot show what will happen. A negative result does not mean there is no risk of getting cancer. The risk can change over time due to non-genetic reasons, such lifestyle choices or simply getting older.

Genetic tests may be flawed, and test results can be interpreted wrongly. Although this is not common, different labs may have different ways of interpreting changes because genetic testing is not tightly regulated.

The makers of tests often advertise and promote their tests to doctors and the public. In doing so, they can make the test sound more helpful and decisive than it actually is. This can be misleading as decisions about testing may be made on incomplete or wrong information.

Reputable genetics counselors should, however, be able to help people know what to expect from test results.

Who should get genetic testing?

Genetic tests may be flawed, and results can be interpreted incorrectly.

If a person has a strong family history of cancer and the genetic specialist thinks they could have inherited a faulty gene, they will offer that person a genetic test.

According to Cancer Research UK, the following scenarios signal what is considered to be a strong family history of cancer:

• If more than two close relatives on the same side of the family have had cancer
• The relatives have had the same cancer or different cancers that can be caused by the same gene fault
• The cancers appeared when the relatives were below the age of 50
• One relative has had a gene fault found by genetic tests

What to do if you think you may have a hereditary risk of cancer

People are advised to talk to their family doctor if they think that they may have a strong family history of cancer. Specialists will ask about their family in order to determine how many members have been diagnosed with cancer. If they think that a person has an increased risk, they will refer them to a genetics clinic for testing.

According to the American Cancer Society, the most effective ways of reducing the risk of cancer are simple things, such as:

• Eating a healthy well-balanced diet
• Not smoking
• Exercising regularly
• Keeping to a healthy weight
• Staying safe in the sun

Written by Gareth Strachan

Dr. Manny: 'Miracle' more riders weren't killed in NJ crash